SIMON DE MONTFORT

It is now time to look into the life of Earl Simon de Montfort himself. The story of de Montfort`s is a story of high born family connections, a story of everlasting crusading spirit, a story of high ambitions, a story of d´Ibelins and Montmorency`s, but more than anything else it is a story of Simon de Montfort. He was the youngest son of Simon the crusader, yet he is the person that made the family famous. His name was one of the most praised in medieval times, in the same class with Richard the Lion-heart and Black Prince.

The story of Simon de Montfort really starts when he entered England. This happened in 1231. Simon`s family was from France, but his grandmother was Amicia de Beaumont, a daughter of one of the most influential families in England. From his mother Simon`s father had inherited the earldom of Leicester. Since all the family land in France belonged to Simon`s elder brother, Amaury, it was only natural that he moved to England to take possession of his earldom.

Earl Simon was well connected in England. Through his grandfathers sister Bertrade de Montfort he was related to several families, which included de Meschines, David Etherington`s family (Earls of Huntingdon), Lords of Galloway, de Bruce family, Hastings family, de Ferrer`s family (Earls of Derby) and Quincy family.

In England Simon de Montfort did well. He soon became a close friend with king Henry III and in 1237 married Henry`s sister Eleanor Plantagenet. This made him one of the most influential men in the realm. In 1237 Eleanor was a 23 years old widow. Her first husband William the marshal had died in 1231. It seems that Simon fell in love with Eleanor and their marriage was not political. It soon however became extremely political. While accepting the marriage Henry III did not ask the opinion of the Barons, as was the custom. This raised a lot of opposition, especially since Simon de Montfort was considered to be foreigner, French. The marriage coincided with a raising power of foreigners in England, since Henry III seemed to favour them. Richard of Cornwall, brother of Henry and Eleanor, assumed the leadership of the opposition and fiercely resisted the marriage. It led into an almost open conflict, but soon the situation calmed down.

While Simon was busy marrying Eleanor and getting mixed into English politics, his older brother Amaury was planning to join a crusade. Things in the Holy Land were difficult, since the truce negotiated by emperor Fredrick II was ending. There was a lot of talk about a new crusade, and some nobles in France took the cross. Their leader was Count Theobald IV of Champagne, who was also King of Navarre. Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy promised to go with him. With these two were two great officers of the French realm, Amaury, Count of Montfort and Constable of France, and Robert de Courtenay, Butler of France. Other nobles were Peter of Dreux, who had been Duke of Brittany, Richard, viscount of Beaumont, Dreux of Mello, Philip of Montfort and several others. Philip of Montfort was the son of Guy de Montfort, brother of Amaury.

These were illustrious names, but their quality was in doubt. Count Theobald was a poor soldier and ineffective politician. He had just rebelled against King Louis of France and went to crusade to get papal protection. Duke of Burgundy was not any better. Peter of Dreux was however a noted soldier and a skilful politician. Amaury de Montfort was said to be a poor nobleman with only small lands. He was deeply in depth and his crusade was financed by the Pope and King Louis. It was hoped Amaury would bring some leadership to the crusade. He was considered the first soldier of France.

The crusaders left France in August 1239. Most sailed from Marseilles. They arrived to Acre in September. There they met with local lords to plan their course of action. These lords were Walter, Count of Brienne, Odo Montbeliard, Constable of Jerusalem, Balian d`Ibelin, Lord of Beirut, John d`Ibelin, Lord of Arsuf, and their cousin Balian of Sidon. Balian of Sidon was son of Helvis Ibelin, and therefore half-brother of Philip de Montfort. This probably made the negotiations easier, as Philip was also cousin to the two d`Ibelin brothers.

There was a great disagreement about what the crusaders should try to attempt. Some even wanted to wait for Richard of Cornwall, who was gathering his own crusade in England. Finally they decided to march south to Askalon and built a castle there to protect the Holy Land from Egypt. Then the army would proceed to Damascus and attack it. The crusading army had 4000 men, half of them locals. In November 2^nd 1239 the small army left from Acre. Sultan of Damascus heard they were coming and ordered supplies to be gathered to his city so he could withstand a siege. This gave the crusaders a good opportunity.

Peter of Dreux learned that a large convoy of animals bound for Damascus was passing within striking distance of the army. The crusaders badly needed supplies, so he decided to intercept the convoy. Peter however told no one else about his plans and slipped away with 200 men. He did not wish to share the glory with anyone else. The convoy was found and Peter charged it and after a brief fighting he drove the escort off. Many enemies were killed and the convoy taken. Peter of Dreux was the hero of the day, but this caused jealousy among others. Especially Amaury de Montfort seems to have been jealous about his military reputation.

When the army was nearing Jaffa a number of barons decided to take their own forces and attack an Egyptian camp near Gaza. Their leaders were Count of Bar, Amaury de Montfort, Duke of Burgundy, Walter of Brienne, Balian of Sidon, John of Ibelin and Odo of Montbeliard. Peter of Dreux advised against the attack, but the barons went anyway. They had with them from 400 to 600 men. They managed to cross a river safely, but then went to a camp in the middle of sand dunes without sending scouts. The enemy did send scouts and spotted them. Soon the camp was almost surrounded and the crusaders were in a desperate situation, facing overwhelming numbers. Walter of Brienne and Duke of Burgundy retreated to town of Askalon. However the situation was so dangerous that only the mounted men could save themselves. Retreat to Askalon meant sacrificing the infantry. Amaury de Montfort and Count of Bar refused to do that and decided to fight.

John of Ibelin and Odo of Montbeliard went with Walter of Brienne and abandoned the infantry. Even Balian of Sidon went with them. This left Amaury in a desperate situation. He decided to use his crossbowmen to clear the enemy archers from sand dunes around them. This went well until they run out of bolts. The crusaders now had to get out of the dangerous position. Amaury noticed a passage between two dunes. It could provide shelter to his men. But the place was occupied by enemy infantry. Amaury led his knights into a charge and cleared the passage. Enemy was scattered and the knights were secure. The enemy cavalry now closed in, but wisely decided not to attack. Instead the enemy feigned a retreat. Amaury de Montfort fell for it and ordered a charge after them. When the knights were out of the cover the enemy cavalry and infantry closed in. The knights were surrounded in the open ground and cut into pieces. Count Henry of Bar was killed. Amaury de Montfort, viscount of Beaumont and about 80 knights were captured. Despite this severe setback Theobald`s crusade was one of the most successful ones. A war between Damascus and Egypt started and the crusaders were able to negotiate return of large land areas to themselves.

In the meanwhile Richard of Cornwall was planning his own crusade. It left from England in June 1240. With Richard went William Longsword and some other barons. Another leader of the crusade was Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. He went separately with his own party and joined Richard in the Holy Land. This was not the great crusade Simon always dreamed about. Only 800 knights took part. They arrived to Acre on October 1240, only few months after Count Theobald had left. His negotiations had been so successful that there was not much Richard could do. He finished the building of a castle to Askalon and negotiated the exchange of the prisoners taken in Gaza. This must have been one of the main goals, since Amaury`s brother Simon was leading the crusaders. A truce with Egypt was made and prisoners were exchanged in April 1241. Amaury de Montfort was free! On May 3^rd 1241 Richard of Cornwall sailed from Acre back towards England.

Simon de Montfort apparently returned separately. What ever satisfaction he felt for getting his brother Amaury free soon went away. Amaury de Montfort died in late 1241 in Otranto while returning to France. He probably went with Richard of Cornwall, but captivity had wrecked his health. Simon stayed a while in the Holy Land. There he made a great impression upon the local barons. Of course, several of them were his relatives, d`Ibelins. In 1242 Simon de Montfort left the Holy Land and started his return trip to England. It is worth mentioning that his wife Eleanor had followed him all the way to Italy and waited there for the crusade to end.

In southern France Simon met King Henry III, who was operating against rebellious barons in the area. De Montfort eagerly joined the army, only to be disappointed. The campaign was not going well, mainly because of lack of leadership. Simon de Montfort immediately noticed this. He was deeply shocked by the incompetence and irresolution he found, and set out to immediately correct matters. It is easy to see Simon in this situation. He had just returned from a crusade. He knew how things were supposed to be done. And he did not hesitate to say it! He said it even to Henrik III, who took the criticism surprisingly well.

In 1243 Simon finally returned to England. At first he was not really active in politics. However he did give some attention to the matters of church and state. During this period Simon formed a good relationship with scholars and churchmen. He was particularly good friend with an Oxford scholar Adam Marsh and with Robert Grosset, Bishop of Lincoln. During this time barons of England started to demand reforms. They wanted to strengthen the barons against the King. This did not happen, since the King was too strong at the time. But the need for and talk about reforms stayed. Simon de Montfort was a royalist and stayed out of it.

Gascogny was the part of the realm which caused most troubles for Henry III. The Gascons were notoriously rebellious and independent. The province was extremely difficult to govern. The campaign of 1242 had not pacified the area and in 1248 King asked Simon de Montfort to go there and take care of matters. He was made the vice-regent of Gascogny. This did not suit the plans of Simon de Montfort at all. He was planning to join a crusade which Ludvix IX, King of France, was leading to conquer Egypt. Amaury de Montfort`s son John joined this crusade and died of disease at Cyprus. Simon wanted to be there too. The Holy Land was always on his mind. But Henry III was his overlord and Simon had to go to Gascogny. He however demanded and got really independent position from the crown, and a governing period of 7 years.

At first Simon de Montfort was successful. He soon pacified the city of Bordeaux and kept the peace with France. He also attempted to strengthen the power of the King over the local barons. In all his activities Simon was energetic and determined. He however did not understand locals at all. By strengthening the royal powers he turned the barons against himself. The barons complained about Simon to the King, and to his great anger Henry III agreed to listen to the complaints. Simon had expected Henry to support him, since he was protecting Kings interests at Gascogny. Simon took this as an insult. Henry had almost forced him to go to Gascogny and now refused to support him. This was typical for Henry III. He was indecisive and inconsistent. Simon must have realised it now. He resigned in anger and went to a virtual exile in France.

Simon de Montfort returned to England in 1254. This was fortunate, since he managed to prevent a war. In that year Henry III was in Gascogny and heard that Alphonso of Castilia was preparing to invade the province. Word was send to England where the regent, Richard of Cornwall, started to gather forces for war. Simon de Montfort however arrived from France and managed to persuade Richard that it was only a rumour. Fortunately Richard believed, since de Montfort was right. It seems that Simon and Henry III were now reconciled. Four years later Simon was able to do Henry a huge favour.

In that year there were peace negotiations in Paris between France and England. After Bouvines in 1214 the war had never officially ended. King Henry III did not personally participate. His representatives were Earl Simon de Montfort, Henry`s half-brother Geoffrey and Peter of Savoy. Simon was now able to use his good connections to France and negotiated a peace. This was strongly supported by the Pope. In the treaty Henry III gave up his claim to Normandy and Poitou. These now became officially part of France.

It seems that in Paris de Montfort was again driven by his crusade dreams. Richard of Cornwall had been recently elected king of Germans, since his mother had been sister of the emperor. With France and England in peace and Richard at Germany the time could be right for another great crusade with the strength of all the three realms. That is why de Montfort was so eager to negotiate the peace. It has been said that in the negotiations Simon was “possessed for a time by the dream of a united west”, marching against the muslims. But it was not to be. Many barons disagreed with him. Richard of Cornwall did not support this idea of a crusade, and his position in Germany never was strong. Peter of Savoy also worked against de Montfort and eventually even the Pope did not support him. The dream died once again. But the peace that de Montfort made in Paris lasted for 35 years. It was one of his major achievements.

Despite the peace year 1258 was not a good year for Henry III. The baronial opposition against him grew stronger all the time. He got no support from his brother Richard, who was now in Germany. The relations towards de Montfort were cooling. Simon had watched the process of disintegration in the realm with contempt. He now knew his King and felt deep distrust. Furthermore, Simon loathed Henry`s counsellors. Despite everything Simon de Montfort always claimed to be a monarchist. He supported the best interests of the crown. It was the King himself who was danger to the monarchy.

One of the things the barons opposed was the Sicilian policy of Henry III. He meddled to the military matters there and his meddling cost huge amount of money. In 1258 several barons openly opposed Henry`s politics. They swore to support each other against the King. These men were Simon de Montfort, Richard, Earl of Gloucester, Peter of Savoy, Hugh Bigod, John FitzGeoffrey, Peter de Montfort, who was of no relation, and Earl of Norfolk. In the face of such a determined opposition the King agreed to a reform. It would be made by 12 men of the royal council and by 12 magnates of the realm. At this time Simon de Montfort was not one of the real leaders of the opposition. He stayed in the background.

The panel of 24 made several reforms. The office of Justiciar was re-established. A council of 15 magnates was established. Royal castles were given to nobles, who would hold them for 12 years unless the council of 15 would order otherwise. Royal chancellor and treasurer were now answerable to the council of 15, which was getting a lot of power. It was also agreed that important offices would only be given by approval of the parliament. The parliament would meet three times every year. The reforms were intended to give more powers to the barons. The goal was to make the King “primus inter pares”, first among equals. These were the provisions of Oxford.

The barons were stronger than the King as long as they stayed together. Soon however problems started. Prince Llywelyn of Wales had conquered some areas from Prince Edward, son of Henry III. Henry`s half-brother William of Valence wanted to organise a powerful counter-strike but was opposed by Simon de Montfort. Simon won the argument and instead of war a truce was made in 1259.

William of Valence, his three brothers and his brother in law John de Warenne now stepped in to support the King. They opposed the provisions of Oxford. All five men were foreigners and sat in the council of 24 which had made the reforms. The council now split. The King used the opportunity to cancel the reforms. But as was usual in medieval times, fortunes quickly changed. The barons now turned against these foreigners. Two of the brothers of William of Valence were forced out of the country. They were Guy de Lusignan and Geoffrey. William of Valence and the fourth brother joined them. This left John de Warenne alone and he agreed to all the demands of the barons. Oxford provisions were saved.

The barons had received their reforms and got more power, but this was not all. The wish for reforms was general in the realm. The administration had been ineffective and dishonest. A wide range of reforms were now expected. Simon de Montfort for instance wished a settlement of ecclesiastic problems and the reform of the royal household. Priests had given a long list of demands for reforms, but nothing was done. The barons knew what the people were expecting and responded.

A new law reform was introduced. “At every meeting of the shire court four knights, elected by the shire, were to attend to hear and record all complaints of injuries and trespassed”. Knights now became an integral part of the local government. They were expected to observe local authorities for mal-practises etc. Four knights would then give a report of everything to the parliament when it met. Sheriff`s office was also reformed. From now on it would be held by a local knight, and the office would be held for one year only. The sheriff was forbidden to take bribes or rewards. In 1258 all the sheriffs except four were locals and new in their offices. This gave new influence and responsibilities for the knights. This was a step towards the unity of England, though common people were left outside the reforms. They too had complained about many things. Especially citizens of London had been loud in their complaints.

In 1259 reforms continued. This gave reason to believe that the barons were honest in their reforming spirit. This spirit however died during two following years. All the barons and the court started to protect their own interests and nothing was done. The baronial movement also disintegrated. In the heart of this disintegration was Simon de Montfort.

In this reforming period the soul of the baronial movement was Hugh Bigod. He believed in legality and “refused to be moved from the course of justice by pressure from powerful persons”. But the unity of the barons did not last. Soon two factions emerged from the baronial movement. Another formed around Earl Richard de Clare and another around Prince Edward. Edward`s main allies were Philip Basset, who was in parliament`s council of 12, Robert Walerand, who was King`s friend, Edward`s cousin Henry of Almain (Richard of Cornwall`s son) and John de Warenne. In 1259 Henry of Almain and John de Warenne managed to bring Prince Edward and Simon de Montfort to terms with each other. Especially Almain was in a good position to do it, since he was Simon`s brother-in-law`s son. Edward promised to defend Simon against other barons and to support the baronial movement. This was part of the attempt of Simon to tie Edward to the baronial movement. Clearly he was becoming one of the leaders of the movement.

Things started to move towards an open conflict in 1260, when King Henry was in France. This was the moment when Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, attacked the Marches. He struck the lands owned by Prince Edward and Roger Mortimer of Wigmore. The parliament of England was scheduled to meet and it would take care of the crisis in the Marches. But this was not to be! The King was in France and cancelled the parliament session, since he could not attend himself. This was the decisive moment. Could the parliament act without the King? Did it even need Henry`s permission to meet? Earl Simon, ever the one for legality, firmly claimed that King Henry could not cancel the meeting of the parliament. A lot of confusion followed, with barons arguing about the matter. Justiciar Hugh Bigot postponed the parliament several time, hoping that Henry would return and solve the problem like that.

Then suddenly the country was full of rumours about a civil war. King Henry was calling barons in secrecy to London. Simon de Montfort, his brother-in-law, was not among those invited. There was news about barons gathering troops. Prince Edward was still linked with the baronial movement and his father ordered Justiciar Bigod not to allow Edward into London. In this situation Prince Edward hastened to make peace with his father. He agreed to leave to Gascogne. Richard of Cornwall was behind this reconciliation. He returned to England from Germany in 1260. Richard had been unable to gain real influence in Germany, and was destined to rule in name only.

With Prince Edward out of the way Henry III started to plan a destruction of the man who he considered responsible of all the troubles. This man was Earl Simon de Montfort! However an open accusation in front of king`s court was out of the question. Too many were defending Simon. Finally Henry III agreed that the Church could make an investigation of the actions of Earl Simon. The Earl denied all the accusations and Church was unable to find any evidence to the contrary. The charged against him were dropped. In the time when fast Machiavellian changes of alliance were order of the day, the situation now made a new reconciliation possible. All the parties united to act against Llewellyn of Wales. A campaign commanded by Earl Simon and Richard de Clare was prepared, but a peace was negotiated before the troops moved.

At this time it was said that Earl Simon was anxious for a resettlement of all the disputes, but King`s attitude made it impossible. Henry III continued to work against the reforms of Oxford. He drove out the barionial sheriff`s from the counties and appointed his own. The baronial chancellor was fired and replaced by Walter de Merton, a dedicated King`s man. Hugh Bigod lost his position as a Justiciar, and was replaced by Philip Basset. These actions again drove the country towards a civil war. Even peaceful Hugh Bigod started to resist the King. He refused to hand over two important castles. At this point the barons swore an oath not to give up to the King`s demands. Hugh Bigod later forgot his oath, but Earl Simon fought and died for it, never forgetting or compromising. In this he stood above his time, which was full of betrayal and intrigue.

In 1261 most barons still wanted peace, but situation was heating up fast. Earl Simon started replacing the illegal sheriff`s appointed by the King. General opinion however sided with Henry III in this matter and Simon had to give up. The wish for peace was too much. Hugh Bigod now turned his coat and together with Richard de Clare he made peace with the King. Simon refused to follow their example, and left England in great wrath. When 1262 arrived Henry III had situation under control. Reforms of Oxford were cancelled one by one. His step-brothers now returned to England. At this time things looked gloomy for Earl Simon. He still considered himself bound by his oath to protect the Oxford reforms.

The calm situation in England ended as quickly as it had arrived. Richard de Clare died in July 1262. He had been powerful figure in the Marches. After his death the ceasefire with Llewellyn of Wales was often violated. Finally Llewellyn lost his temper and crossed the border once again. The March lords were scattered and could not form unified front against the Welsh. This was because another political argument had started in England. This time it was between the March lords and Prince Edward. Edward had accused Roger Leyburn, who then started to gather support against the Prince. Soon Roger Clifford became the leader of this movement. Other barons were John Giffard, Peter de Montfort, and later Henry of Almain and John de Warenne. Especially Almain and Warenne were Edward`s old allies who soon again turned their coats and returned to their old alliance. Some of the barons in this group were young and still defended the Oxford reforms. They were especially John Devesci, Robert de Vipont and Peter de Montfort younger. To this group belonged also Gilbert de Clare, young son of Richard. The movement received great support at the Shires, where baronial movement had raised great hopes which the King had crushed.

At this moment, with a wide new baronial movement to oppose the King, things turned decidedly towards a civil war. The barons were representing too many interest groups. They needed leadership and it could be provided best by Earl Simon de Montfort. They send a word for Simon to come and help them. In April 1863 Simon de Monfort entered England. He would never leave it! The arrival of Earl Simon soon turned the movement into a party with a clear policy. The banner Simon de Montfort raised was for the reforms of Oxford.

In May 25^th Henry III demanded troops to gather for a campaign against Llewellyn. The response was unenthusiastic. Simon de Montfort and his allies started to gather at Oxford. A demand was send to the King to return to the provisions of Oxford. The King refused. The time for open conflict had arrived. Earl Simon with his forces moved. Gloucester was soon taken and baronial forces advanced towards Reading. Richard of Cornwall tried to negotiate, but at this point it was too late. He was ignored. The bishops of England turned against the King. Both London and Kent rose against Henry III. He had to give up! In triumph Earl Simon entered London and occupied the Tower. Hugh le Despenser became Justiciar and Nicholas of Ely was new Chancellor. Roger Leyburn was made steward of royal household. Peace with Llewellyn of Wales was renewed. The situation of 1258 and 59 was returned and the country once again looked united. But it was only so in the surface. In actuality Earl Simon had decidedly divided the country.

The calm did not last long. Ironically Earl Simon was again in the middle of it all. His noble mind worked against him! In the spirit of reconciliation Simon worked as a middleman between Prince Edward and his ex-allies. As usual, he was successful. A peace between Edward on the other side and his cousin Henry of Almain, John de Warenne, Roger Leyburn and other March lords on the other was made and they returned to their old alliance. The problem was that by arranging it Earl Simon weakened the baronial movement and strengthened Prince Edward, who immediately turned hostile towards Simon. Other hostiles had gone into France. These included Queen Eleanor, Peter of Savoy, John Mansel and Archbishop of Canterbury.

In the same year there was an attempt in the parliament to settle the conflict between Henry III and the barons. This attempt failed. The negotiations ended and everyone started to prepare for a new civil war. Henry III and Prince Edward, now unified against Earl Simon, retreated to Windsor. Earl Simon stayed at Tower of London. Neither side wanted to fight. It was time for Richard of Cornwall to re-enter the scene and start negotiations. Since many barons wanted settlement Earl Simon had to make give the positions of Chancellor and Exchequer back to the control of the King. Sensing that things were moving against him Earl Simon withdrew to his great castle, Kenilworth. He firmly believed that his main goal, a rule based on provisions of Oxford, was achieved. This belief came from King Henry and Richard of Cornwall, who both assured Simon that they would not break the provisions. The conflict seemed to be over.

But, as ever, they were not trustworthy. As the position of the King strengthened he again started to work against the provisions. He was gaining support of several barons. Gilbert de Clare was moving towards neutrality. Soon Henry III made an attempt to occupy Tower, but was checked by the pro-baronial garrison. Simon de Montfort immediately returned south with his forces. He entered London and camped to Southwarke, southside of Thames, only to fall into a trap. Supporters of Henry III closed the bridge behind Earl Simon, but citizens of London attacked them and the bridge was reopened. Since his scheme had failed King Henry again declared he would respect the provisions of Oxford.

But the King already had another scheme in his mind. In 1264 he went to France. A baronial delegation followed him, and there were negotiations in Amiens. Henry`s main idea was to have King of France, who as the overlord of Gascogne was Henry`s feudal lord, to release him from his promise to respect the provisions. Baronial delegation, including Earl Simon`s son Henry, Peter de Montfort, Humphrey de Bohun and Thomas de Cantilupe, naturally tried to prevent this. It is worth noticing that Humphrey de Bohun was a relative of Simon de Montfort through his great-aunt who had married DeMeschines. It all went against the barons. Pope supported Henry III and threatened barons with excommunication. Louis of France declared Henry III and all other barons free of their promise to respect the provisions. This meant war against Simon de Montfort and his supporters.

This situation arrived with England ill prepared. Earl Simon was sick and at first could not organise defence. Roger Mortimer of Wigmore was not openly hostile to him. Simon confronted this by allying himself with Llewelyn of Wales, who was Mortimer`s neighbour. Llewellyn together with Earl Simon`s sons Henry and Simon planned an attack against Mortimer. Their plans were interrupted by grave news. Henry III and Prince Edward landed on England in February 1264. Again they had broken their promises to Earl Simon! The royal forces marched west. Humphrey de Bohun was unable to defend Brecon and it was taken. Royal forces were able to link up with Roger Mortimer. Henry de Montfort now quickly marched to Severn River. He was able to conquer Gloucester, but the castle held out against him.

Another relative of de Montfort`s, Robert de Ferrers, marched from north to help Henry de Montfort. He was able to surprise and take Worchester. The things looked good for barons, until Prince Edward was able to persuade Henry de Montfort and de Ferrers that he wanted peace. Henry de Montfort evacuated Severn valley, which was quickly occupied by Prince Edward. This left Edward with an open route to Oxford. He and Henry III marched there and in March 30^th 1264 the royal army gathered there. In the same time baronial forced gathered at Northampton. Everything was ready for a great confrontation. In April Edward advanced and was able to take Northampton. It seems to have been a great surprised to the barons. The town was looted and Peter de Montfort younger and Simon de Montfort younger were captured.

Earl Simon de Montfort had been occupying London, to keep it out of the royal hands. Now he quickly marched north to help his allies. He came too late to help Northampton and quickly returned to London. Edward used this opportunity to strike the lands of Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, in the north. This gave Earl Simon more time to gather forces. Gilbert de Clare now joined him. De Clare was at Kent protecting Dover, but soon he joined de Montfort in an attack against Rochester. The town was taken in April 18^th 1264, but castle held out. Royal army came to help and Earl Simon and Earl Richard withdrew to London. Edward marched to the same direction and soon both armies were rapidly moving to Sussex. Most of the high nobility were now with the King, but Earl Simon`s position was still strong. The shires were with him, as well as the city of London. Of the barons only hard core was left. These included the young men, Earl Gilbert of Clare with his considerable resources, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, John de Burgh and John FitzJohn. Edward`s strike at north had given him one great result. Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, did not join de Montfort and de Clare.

BATTLE OF LEWES:

Two armies stood against each other in Sussex, at a place called Lewes. Two days were spent in negotiating for peace. Earl Simon was accompanied by three bishops. One of them, Simon Berkstead, went to negotiate with the King. The only demand of de Montfort and de Clare was that Henry III would guarantee the provisions of Oxford. The royal party refused such a demand. Prince Edward and Richard of Cornwall were said to be in a warlike mood, and they answered the demand “with a fierce challenge”! The King sent a formal letter of diffidatio, of renunciation of homage. Both sides then started to prepare for a battle. Characteristically, Earl Simon`s army fought under a banner of white crusading cross. In May 13^th 1264 it began. Simon de Montfort started with a surprising night march. He quickly approached Lewes and fought a nearby ridge unoccupied. During the night baronial army occupied the hill and the morning saw their ranks in perfect lines ready for battle.

The royal commanders were at first surprised, but then confidently advanced to meet the enemy. Their army was larger and they felt sure of victory. Prince Edward commanded the right flank, Henry III the centre and Richard of Cornwall the left. Edward began the battle with a fierce charge against Londoners opposite him. The line broke and Londoners fled the battle. But Edward pursued killing many. When he returned to the field the battle was already over. Simon de Montfort completely defeated his opponents. The forces of Henry III and Richard of Cornwall were driven from the field. It was a completely and largely bloodless victory. Only serious losses were suffered by the Londoners, of whom about 600 had died. Richard of Cornwall and Henry of Almain were captured. King`s stepbrothers William of Valence and Guy de Lusignan, Hugh Bigod and Earl of Warenne fled to the coast and from there to France. Earl Simon captured Earls of Hereford and Arundel. Arundel was his relative through DeMeschines`s. Also Simon`s archenemy Roger Mortimer was captured, but he was not harmed. The list of captured also included most of the March lords, Philip Basset, John Comy and two Scotsman distantly related to de Montfort, Robert Bruce and John Balliol.

After the crushing defeat Henry III had to make peace. The guarantee the peace Prince Edward and Henry of Almain were kept as hostages. Most of the royal castles were occupied by barons. Simon de Montfort younger and Peter de Montfort younger were to be released. It was also agreed, that “no man on either side was to do harm to persons, lands or chattels”. After the agreement Roger Mortimer, Roger Clifford and other March lords, and John Balliol were allowed to go home. With such a crushing victory and such a firm peace Earl Simon was now sure that everything would be well. His attempt for peace seems to be genuine and honest. He was even ready to concessions to make peace with the barons who had fled to France.

New legislation followed. The shires were again given to the Sheriffs of the parliament. The shires were also permitted to elect four knights each to represent them at the parliament. A council of 9 was elected to advice the King. Three electors would nominate the council. These three were then in a position to frequently intervene in public business. In the council of 9 were Earl Simon`s strongest ally Peter de Montfort, and also Humphrey de Bohun and bishop of London. But Earl Simon was working behind the scenes, making sure everything worked. “Simon`s adhesion to the provisions of Oxford required him to act this way. He was in his own eyes the faithful vassal entrusted with the obligation to maintain the co-operation, through a council, of King and community”.

While Earl Simon was working for peace the refugees in France were working for war. They were preparing a landing to England. But the country seemed united against them and for Earl Simon. The shires were behind him. A new peace was made at Canterbury. Henry III promised to let the provisional administration continue until his son Edward would become the ruler. Also a reform of church was agreed, as well as a freedom of trade and actions against the influence of foreigners. The refugees however did not accept the peace of Canterbury and negotiations continued. Earl Simon was ready to concessions but never gave the King full freedom of action. He did not trust the King, with a good reason. Papal legate supported the refugees and Earl Simon, the most faithful son of the church, was threatened with excommunication. In negations Peter de Montfort refused give up the Oxford provisions. All the supporters of the provisions were duly excommunicated.

The March lord, who had been released were also in the opposition. They refused to join the session of parliament and kept their prisoners, Simon de Montfort younger and Peter de Montfort younger. This was again a complete betrayal of their promises. The March lords occupied Bristol and whole Severn valley. In July 1264 Earl Simon and Gilbert de Clare marched against them. A fierce campaign forced Mortimer and other March lords to submit. Earl Simon and de Clare then left the area, but news about the excommunication soon made the March lords to once again break their word. They tried to free Prince Edward, but the attempt failed. The Marchers however refused to come and explain their actions. During the winter Earl Simon was forced to march again to the Severn valley. In December 12^th Roger Mortimer again subdued. During this trip Simon occupied and kept the shire and castle of Chester.

The parliament met in January 20^th 1265. Besides barons also two knights from each shire attended. There were also two burghers from Lincoln, York and other nominated towns. “The national rally of the previous summer was given a political character”. Obviously Earl Simon hoped that during the parliament all the disagreements would be settled. This was to be his finest hour, and then maybe at last he could prepare his own crusade to the Holy Land! By March 8^th a new peace had been made. Prince Edward had sworn to respect the new government and to not call any foreigners to invade country. This obviously meant Guy de Lusignan and Valence, who were still preparing in France. Earl Simon received the castle of Chester and temporarily also Bristol. After Earl Simon would have received Chester the city of Bristol would be returned to Edward, as well as Dover, Scarborough, Nottingham and two other castles. Prince Edward and Henry of Almain were then released and it seemed that Earl Simon`s triumph was complete. The King and his son swore “to maintain the terms of settlement and to observe the charter of liberties”.

But the refugees behind the Channel did not give up. They waited for their time. Soon several barons started to support Henry III. Many of them were jealous of the influence of Earl Simon. Most important of them was Gilbert de Clare, who started to cause trouble. He withdrew from the court and started negotiations with Roger Mortimer. Encouraged by this the March lord again took up arms against Earl Simon. At the same time William of Valence and John de Warenne landed at Pembroke. They were helped by Earl Gilbert`s brother Thomas de Clare. Obviously the whole thing had been planned by Roger Mortimer and Gilbert de Clare. And also by Prince Edward, as soon became apparent. In May 28^th 1265 Edward fled from the court, breaking his word again. He was joined by Thomas de Clare and went to join Roger Mortimer and Gilbert de Clare at Ludlow.

The conspiracy against Earl Simon was well planned and it took some time for him to realise the strength of the opposition. Earl Simon stayed in the Severn valley and asked help from his ally Llewellyn of Wales. Instead he should have retreated to his own land to gather more forces.

BATTLE OF EVESHAM:

Prince Edward now assumed command of the royal army. He swiftly marched to Gloucester and took it. This left Earl Simon stranded on the west side of the Severn. He managed to cross the river and now, too late, tried to move east to his support areas and towards the army of his son Simon younger. The son was marching south to join his father, but was surprised by Prince Edward at Kenilworth. Most of the baronial force was captured, but Simon the younger managed to flee and the castle remained in his hands. This left Earl Simon all alone in the land which had suddenly turned against him. He managed to reach the village of Evesham, but there the royal army caught him. In August 4^th the battle was fought at Evesham. When the enemy was approaching, it is said that Earl Simon saw many of his old allies and friends among the opposing army. Realising the irony of the situation and complimenting the good marching order or the enemy he then said, “I taught them that”!

The royal army was huge, but despite this Earl Simon decided to march out to the open and give battle. He apparently realised he could not win anymore, since it is claimed that while deciding to march out instead of trying to flee he said, “It is not for the soldier of Christ to be put to flight, but it is better to meet death honestly on the swords of your enemies”. The battle was then joined. While baronial army marched the standard bearer, Guy Balliol, accidentally broke his lance. This was an ill omen. Humphrey Bohun younger quickly retired to the rear of the army, and was then accused of cowardice by de Montfort himself. Earl Simon`s allies, the Welsh bowmen were first to break and tried to flee. They were slaughtered. It seems that Earl Simon then tried to charge uphill to defeat the centre of Prince Edward, but the flanks of the larger army surrounded him and it was the end. The baronial army was then defeated by the superior numbers.

In the end “Simon and his knights fought in a circle round the King (who was still a prisoner)”. There they died, but in honourable manner no one hurt the King. Instead Henry III was wounded and almost killed by the royalists, who did not recognise him at first. When the enemy was surrounding them the barons shouted in unison, “O old one appear, old one appear, it is impossible to live linger”. Earl Simon de Montfort and his son Henry were killed. Henry was the first to die, split by a sword. “Thus the whole weight of the battle fell upon the earl of Leicester, who was an old and shrewd warrior. He stood there shock like a strong tower; but surrounded by few followers, and overcome by number, he fell, and thus terminated an hereditary prowess, rendered famous by many glorious deeds”. In the final act of betrayal on that day of betrayals, Roger Mortimer himself killed Earl Simon, apparently by trusting a spear through his neck. Mortimer did not stop when Simon was dead, but hacked the body into pieces and took the head as a trophy back to Wigmore. In the similar situation at Lewes Earl Simon had not harmed Mortimer and later released him.

Among the killed at Evesham were loyal ally Peter de Montfort, Hugh Despenser the Justiciar and Ralph Basset of Drayton. Humphrey de Bohun the younger later died from his wounds. Earl Simon`s son Guy de Montfort was wounded and captured. In the sources are also listed other people killed, including William Mandeville of Essex, Walter Creppings, William Devereux of Lyonshall, Thomas Astlely, John Beauchamp of Bedford, Guy Balliol, Roger Roule, Roger St.John, Gilbert Elesfield, John Dyve, William Arundel, Hugh Hopevile, Guy Bayselle, Richard Trusselle, William Birmingham, Robert Sepinges, Walter Despigny, William York and Robert Tregoz. The amount of nobles killed tells about how bravely Earl Simon`s men fought. The circle around King Henry did not surrender, but died with Earl Simon. At least Humphrey Bohun, Guy Balliol and William Arundel were relatives of Earl Simon. Not all tried heroically, of course. Both Peter de Montfort senior and Ralph Basset tried to surrender, but were killed.

Guy de Montfort was wounded and captured, after his cousin Henry of Almain intervened to save his life. Others who were wounded and captured included John FitzJohn, Henry Hastings, John Vescy, Peter de Montfort younger and Nicholas Segrave. Henry of Hastings was another of those Scottish relatives of Earl Simon. At least two barons managed to escape and went to Kenilworth to join Simon de Montfort younger. These two were Walter Baskerville of Eardisley and John Muscegros.

The baronial movement was now at ruins. However many of the provisions were never cancelled. Earl Simon de Montfort died for his cause, and was partially successful. But the fortunes of the family in England were ruined. Two of Earl Simons surviving sons, Guy and Simon de Montfort, had to flee the country. They went to Italy. In 1271 Prince Edward and Henry of Almain were on their way to a crudasade. Edward however sent Almain back, apparently to pacify Gascogne, but also to negotiate a settlement with de Montfort brothers. He met his cousins at Viterbo in Italy and at first they talked in peace. However during a church ceremony Guy and Simon de Montfort suddenly attacked Almain and stabbed him dead. Guy de Montfort then dragged the body outside and hacked it into pieces, and had been done to his father at Evesham. This revenge horrified everyone even during that violent time, since they were cousins and Almain had personally saved Guy at Evesham. Interestingly Dante reserved a place for Guy de Montfort in the worst place of his Hell.

Guy de Montfort was excommunicated for the murder, but was absolved by Pope Martin IV in 1283. At this time he had formed a link with one of Rome`s powerful families, Orsinis. Guy de Montfort`s daughter Anastasia married Raymond des Ursins (Orsini). Guy was made captain-general of the papal forced in Romagna. In June 23^rd he was captured by Aragonese admiral Ruggero di Loria at the battle of the Gulf of Naples. Guy de Montfort died in the prison. His brother Simon had died 1271 at Siena. Interestingly, the sources also mention Pierre de Montfort, son of Earl Simon, who also died at Evesham, though he was not mentioned among those slain. Perhaps he was illegitime child? Earl Simon`s youngest son was sir Aymer de Montfort, who died 1301. He was apparently too young to fight at Evesham and was then seized by Prince Edward, who kept him away from his brothers and their bad influence.

Earl Simon was killed at Evesham and his sons either died with him or were forced to flee the country. They never again gained influence in England. But the story of honourable Simon de Montfort, defender of the people, who never broke his oath, spread among the people and he became a folk hero.